Some Western scholars have criticized China's integration-oriented ethnic policies and compared them to the assimilation policies that the West used to implement. However, those familiar with the development of China's ethnic policies can assert that the country's promotion of ethnic integration does not seek to eliminate ethnic boundaries, erase ethnic differences or pursue "ethnic assimilation."

Instead, it is based on the conscious, voluntary and autonomous participation of all ethnic groups to share strengths, complement each other's weaknesses and benefit together. This approach not only conforms to historical patterns but also meets current needs.

What is 'assimilation?' 

The theory of assimilation is an important concept in Western studies of ethnic relations. "Assimilation" is defined as "the process by which individuals or groups acquire the culture, language and customs of another group and eventually become indistinguishable from that group."

Looking back at history, the assimilation policies implemented by European and American colonizers toward indigenous peoples in Africa, North America and Oceania have indeed led to tragic social consequences. 

During the early colonial period in North America, white settlers employed tactics involving military superiority and cultural assimilation in a bid to subjugate and displace Native American populations.

The settlers also introduced slavery, importing African slaves for labor. This began in the early colonial period and persisted until the abolition of slavery across the United States in 1865.

In the early 20th century, the U.S. Government adopted a "melting pot" policy for European immigrants, encouraging assimilation into mainstream society centered around Anglo-Protestant culture. This often led to the loss of original identities and marginalized racial and ethnic minorities.

At the same time, the U.S. Government implemented assimilation policies for Native American communities, attempting to eradicate their traditional cultures.

And in Canada, for instance, the residential school system operated from the 19th century to the 20th century was primarily run by churches with government support. Indigenous children were forcibly removed from their families and communities to attend these schools.

The curriculum in these schools often included English language education, religious indoctrination (primarily Christian teachings), vocational training and manual labor.

Lasting effects included cultural erosion, social disintegration and intergenerational trauma.

Differences 

In 1989, Chinese scholar Fei Xiaotong published an article titled The Pluralistic Pattern of the Chinese Nation. In 1996, he reiterated his core viewpoints, underlining that the Chinese nation is a distinct entity rather than merely a collective term for the 56 ethnic groups in China. Throughout its historical development, the Chinese nation has featured a unique structural characteristic: an intrinsic "unity in diversity" framework.

The concept of "nation" in the West originated in modern times, and its historical basis and theoretical origins are vastly different from those in China.

Discussions about nation and nationalism in Chinese society mainly arose from the influence of Western knowledge systems and discursive concepts in modern times.

But it is inappropriate to simply apply Western theories when discussing national issues in the Chinese context.

Today, China emphasizes a "sense of community for the Chinese nation." Despite dynastic shifts and periods of division, the country's historical and cultural continuity spans several millennia, marking its significance in global history.

Continuity

Since the Qin and Han dynasties (221 B.C.-A.D. 220), China, with the Central Plains region as its core, has formed a political entity. Despite frequent changes in borders and occasional shifts in the dominant groups holding central power, a unified cosmology, a civilization system centered around Chinese cultures, and a social order promoting "unity in diversity" and "education for all without discrimination" have been its enduring features.

Despite the influence of belief systems such as Daoism, Buddhism and Confucianism throughout history, Chinese civilization has always been characterized by its secular nature. This stands in stark contrast to many civilizations where religion serves as a core aspect, i.e., the ideological foundation of monotheistic religions such as Christianity, Judaism and Islam.

In Chinese history, the ruling class and dominant political groups emerged from both the Han people in the Central Plains as well as peripheral ethnic groups. Despite the diversity of ethnic origins among those in power, they consistently upheld and perpetuated the Chinese cultural system and dynastic lineage.

This phenomenon, unique to Chinese civilization, stems from its cultural tradition, which does not include the exclusive racial and ethnic concepts often prevalent in Western societies.

The Chinese nation comprises not only the various ethnic groups within China today but also those historically inhabiting Chinese territories. Throughout Chinese history, whether it be the Han group in the Central Plains or the ethnic groups on the peripheries, they have collectively formed a mosaic of peoples from different regions and ethnic backgrounds within the East Asian ecological zone.

While the Han have historically been predominant in terms of political and cultural influence, other ethnic groups, such as the Mongolians, Tibetans, and many more, have also left their imprint on the cultural diversity and historical development of China.

The continuous integration among many ethnic groups in history has formed the strong cohesion of the Chinese nation.

Over the course of historical development, many groups within the Chinese nation have retained distinct characteristics that persist to this day.

Population migrations across regions and interethnic marriages have contributed to differences in physical features, attire, language, religious beliefs and customs among these groups. While some ethnic differences are readily observable, others are subtle or nearly imperceptible. 

A collective identity 

In Chinese history, ethnic integration refers to the gradual convergence of ethnic groups through interaction, communication and mutual understanding, resulting in the blurring of ethnic boundaries.

This process has nurtured the emergence of a larger, more inclusive ethnic community characterized by extensive consensus and coherence across many facets of social life.

As a result, individuals from diverse ethnic backgrounds have developed a strong collective identity and sense of belonging, sharing common values, cultural connections, and a psychological affiliation to a broader cultural space.

Since ancient times, interactions between agricultural and pastoral communities, driven by mutual dependence and facilitated by trade and commerce, have played a pivotal role in promoting ethnic integration.

Western perspectives often regard the exchange, communication and interaction among ethnic groups in China as a conquest between nation-states, equating Han people with Chinese and the Chinese nation. They tend to label the process of growing commonality among ethnic groups as "Hanization." This perspective can lead to misconceptions, framing the discourse within the confines of assimilation and internal colonization. To truly understand China, Western scholars must adopt a more nuanced approach to their analysis. BR

The author is Boya chair professor at Peking University. This is an edited excerpt of an article first published by Deep China 

Copyedited by Elsbeth van Paridon 

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